Horse owners who plan to breed one or more mares should have a working knowledge of heredity and know how to care for breeding animals and foals. The number of mares bred that actually conceive varies from about 40 to 85 percent, with the average running less than 50 percent. Some mares that do conceive fail to produce living foals. This means that, on the average, two mares are kept a whole year to produce one foal, and even then, some foals are disappointments from the standpoint of quality.

Heredity in Horses

The gene is the unit that determines heredity. In the body cells of horses there are many chromosomes. In turn, the chromosomes carry pairs of minute particles, called genes, which are the basic hereditary material. The nucleus of each body cell of horses contains 32 pairs of chromosomes, or a total of 64; whereas there are thousands of pairs of genes.

When a sex cell (a sperm or an egg) is formed, only one chromosome and one gene of each pair goes into it. Then, when mating and fertilization occur, the 32 single chromosomes from the germ cell of each parent unite to form new pairs, and the chromosomes with their genes are again present in duplicate, in the body cells of the embryo. Thus, with all possible combinations of 32 pairs of chromosomes and the genes that they bear, it is not strange that full sisters (except identical twins from a single egg split after fertilization) are so different. Actually we can marvel that they bear as much resemblance to each other as they do.

Because of this situation, the mating of a mare with a fine track record to a stallion that transmits good performance characteristics will not always produce a foal of a merit equal to its parents. The foal could be markedly poorer than the parents or, in some cases, it could be better than either parent.

Simple and multiple gene inheritance occurs in horses, as in all animals. In simple gene inheritance, only one pair of genes is involved; thus, a pair of genes may be responsible for some one specific trait in horses. However, most characteristics, such as speed, are due to many genes; hence, they are called multiple-gene characteristics.

For most characteristics, many pairs of genes are involved. For example, growth rate in foals is affected by (1) appetite and feed consumption, (2) the proportion of the feed eaten that is absorbed, and (3) the use to which the nutrients are put—whether they are used for growth or fattening, and each in turn is probably affected by different genes. Because multiple characteristics show all manner of gradation from high to low performance, they are sometimes referred to as quantitative traits. Thus, quantitative inheritance refers to the degree to which a characteristic is inherited. For example, all racehorses can run and all inherit some ability to run, but it is the degree to which they inherit the ability that is important.

Dominant and recessive factors exist in horses. Some genes have the ability to prevent or mask the expression of others, with the result that the genetic makeup of such animals cannot be recognized with accuracy. This is called dominance. The gene that is masked is recessive. Because black is dominant to chestnut, all of the offspring will be black when a pure black stallion is crossed with a chestnut mare.

The resulting black offspring are not genotypically pure; they are Bb, where B stands for the dominant black and b for the recessive chestnut. These black, or F1, (first cross), animals will produce germ cells carrying black and chestnut genes in equal proportion. Then if an F1, stallion is crossed with F1 mares, the F2 (second cross) population will on the average consist of three blacks to one chestnut.

The chestnut in the F2, population, being a recessive, will be pure for color. That is, the mating of any two chestnut horses will produce, according to the most authoritative work, chestnut offspring; this is the situation in the Suffolk breed of draft horses where all animals of the breed are chestnuts. Of the three blacks in the F2, however, only one is pure for black with the genetic constitution BB. The other two will be Bb in genetic constitution and will produce germ cells carrying B and b in equal proportion.

Dominance often makes it difficult to identify and discard all animals carrying an undesirable recessive factor. In some cases, dominance is neither complete nor absent, but incomplete, or partial, and expressed in a variety of ways. The best known case of partial dominance in horses is the palomino coloring.

Heredity and environment in quantitative traits function in horses just as they do in all animals. Therefore, maximum development of characteristics of economic importance such as growth, body form, or speed cannot be achieved unless horses receive proper training, nutrition, and management.

The problem of the horse breeder is to select the best animals available genetically to be parents of the next generation. Because only 15 to 30 percent of the observed variation among animals may be due to heredity, and because environmental differences can produce misleading variations, mistakes in the selection of breeding animals are inevitable.

The sex of an animal is determined by chromosomes. The mare has a pair of similar chromosomes called X chromosomes, and the stallion has a pair of unlike sex chromosomes called X and Y chromosomes.

The sex chromosomes in each pair separate from one another when the germ cells are formed. Thus, each of the ova or eggs produced by the mare contains the X chromosome; but the sperm of the stallion are of two types, one-half containing the X chromosome and the other half the Y chromosome. Since, on the average, the eggs and sperm unite at random, it can be understood that half of the progeny will contain the chromosomal makeup XX (female) and other half XY (male).

Both the stallion and the mare are equally important to any one offspring. But a stallion generally can have many more offspring than a mare can and, from a hereditary standpoint, is more important to the herd or breed.

Prepotency is the ability of an animal to stamp its characteristics on its offspring so the offspring resemble that parent or they resemble each other more than usual.

Nicking results when the right combination of genes for good characteristics is contributed by each parent. Thus, animals nick well when their respective combinations of good genes complement each other.

Family names of horses have genetic significance only if (1) they are based on a linebreeding program that keeps the family closely related to the admired stallion or mare carrying the particular name and (2) members of the family have been rigidly culled. Family names, therefore, lend themselves to speculation, and often have no more significance than human family names.

Systems of breeding, whether planned or by chance, have made it possible to produce horses specially adapted to riding, racing, or driving. There is no one best system of breeding or secret of success for all conditions. Each breeding program is an individual case, requiring careful study. The choice of the system of breeding should be determined primarily by the size and quality of the herd, by the finances and skill of the operator, and by the ultimate goal ahead.

The systems of breeding from which the horseman may select are discussed as follows:

(1) Purebreeding is the system in which the lineage, regardless of the number of generations removed, traces back to the foundation animals accepted by the breed or to animals that have been subsequently approved for infusion. Pure-breeding may be conducted as either inbreeding or outcrossing, or part of each.

(2) Inbreeding is the mating of animals more closely related than the average of the population from which they came. It may be done either by closebreeding or linebreeding.

(a) Closebreeding is breeding closely related animals such as sire to daughter, son to dam, or brother to sister.

(b) Linebreeding is breeding related animals so as to keep the offspring closely related to some highly admired ancestor such as half brother to half sister, female descendent to grandsire, or cousin to cousin.

(3) Outcrossing is the mating of animals that are members of the same breed but that show no relationship in the pedigree for at least four to six generations.

(4) Grading up is breeding a purebred sire of a given breed to a native, or grade, female.

(5) Crossbreeding is mating animals of different breeds.

The Stallion

The stallion should be a purebred animal, a good representative of the breed selected, and a superior individual in type and soundness. If he is an older horse with progeny, the progeny should be of uniformly high quality and of approved type and soundness.

Reproductive organs of the stallion

The stallion's functions in reproduction are (1) to produce the male reproductive cells, the sperm, or spermatozoa, and (2) to introduce sperm into the female reproductive tract at the proper time.

The two testicles are the primary sex organs of the stallion. They produce the sperm and a hormone called testosterone, which regulates and maintains the male reproductive tract in its functional state and is responsible for the masculine appearance and behavior of the stallion.

Sperm are produced in the inner walls or surface of the seminiferous tubules, which are a mass of minute, coiled tubules. These tubules merge into a series of larger ducts that carry the sperm to a coiled tube called the epididymis. The epididymis is the place where the sperm are stored and where they mature, or ripen.

The testicles and epididymides are enclosed in the scrotum, the chief function of which is thermoregulatory. The scrotum maintains the testicles at temperatures several degrees cooler than the rest of the body.

From the epididymis, the sperm move through a tube, the vas deferens, into the urethra. The urethra has a dual role. It carries urine from the bladder through the penis and sperm from the junction with the vas deferens to the end of the penis.

Along the urethra are the accessory glands. These are the prostate, the seminal vesicles, and cowper's gland. Their fluids nourish and preserve the sperm and provide a medium that transports the sperm. The fluids and sperm combined are called semen.

Care and management of the stallion

The following points are pertinent to the care and management of the stallion.

Quarters.—The most convenient arrangement is a roomy box stall that opens directly into a 2- or 3-acre pasture.

Feeding.—The feed requirements are covered in the section on feeding horses.

Exercise.—Allow the stallion the run of a sizeable pasture but also provide additional, unhurried exercise either under saddle or hitched to a cart; by longeing; or by leading.

Grooming.—Groom the stallion daily to make him more attractive and to assist in maintaining his good health and condition.

Age and service.—Limit the mature stallion to not more than two services per day, one early in the morning and the other late in the afternoon; allow 1 day of rest each week.

The number of hand matings per year for stallions of different ages should be limited as follows: 2 years old, 10 to 15; 3 years old, 20 to 40; 4 years old, 30 to 60; mature horses, 80 to 100; and over 18 years old, 20 to 40. Limit the 2-year-olds to two to three services per week; the 3-year-olds to one service per day; and the 4-year-olds or over to two services per day. A stallion may remain a vigorous and reliable breeder up to 20 to 25 years of age.

There are breed differences. Thus, when first entering stud duty, the average 3-year-old Thoroughbred should be limited to 20 to 25 mares per season, but a Standardbred of the same age may breed 25 to 30 mares. A 4- to 5-year-old Thoroughbred should be limited to 30 to 40 mares per season, but a Standardbred of the same age may breed 40 to 50 mares.

Stallion Breeding Contract

The stallion breeding contract should always be in writing; and the higher the stud fee, the more important it is that good business methods are practiced. Neither "gentlemen's agreements" nor "barn door records" will suffice.

A breeding contract is binding on the parties who sign it. Thus, the contract should be carefully read and fully understood before it is signed.

The contract should be executed in duplicate for each mare, one copy to be retained by each party.

The Mare

Characteristics found in the broodmare are likely to be reflected in the offspring. It is fundamental that "like tends to produce like." The broodmare should possess an abundance of femininity in addition to being sound and of good type. She should be of good ancestry, whether purebred or grade.

Reproductive organs of the mare

The mare's functions in reproduction are to (1) produce the female reproductive cells, the eggs or ova; (2) develop the new individual, the embryo, in the uterus; (3) expel the fully developed young at the time of birth, or parturition; and (4) produce milk for the nourishment of the young.

The part played by the mare in the generative process is much more complicated than that of the stallion. It is imperative, therefore, that the modern horseman have a full understanding of the anatomy of the reproductive organs of the mare and the functions of each part.

The two ovaries are the primary sex organs of the mare. They are somewhat bean-shaped organs 2 to 3 inches long. The ovaries produce eggs. Each egg is contained in a bubblelike sac on the ovary, called a follicle. There are hundreds of follicles on each ovary. Generally, the follicles remain unchanged until puberty when one of them begins to grow because of an increase in the follicular liquid in it; the others remain small. The egg is suspended in the follicular fluid.

When the growing follicle is about an inch in diameter, a hormone causes it to rupture and discharge the egg. This is known as ovulation and is the time when mating should take place. The egg is trapped in a funnel-shaped membrane, called the infundibulum, that surrounds the ovary. The infundibulum narrows into a tube called the oviduct. The oviduct then carries the egg to the uterus, or womb, the largest of the female reproductive organs, where the unborn young, or fetus, will develop.

The lining of the uterus is soft and spongy. It contains a vast network of blood vessels that provide a "bed" for the fertilized egg to settle into and develop. At birth, the heavy layers of muscles of the uterus wall contract with great pressure to force the new animal out through the cervix and vagina.

Breeding habits and care of the mare

A knowledge of the mare's normal breeding habits will help to improve the fertility rate. However, not all mares that conceive give birth to live foals. So, improved care and management of the pregnant mare are important also. The age of puberty for mares is 12 to 15 months; the duration of heat ranges from 1 to 37 days, and averages 4 to 6 days; the interval between heat periods ranges from 10 to 37 days, and averages 21; and the gestation period ranges from 310 to 370 days, and averages 336.

The following points are pertinent to the care and management of the mare:

Age to breed.—Well-grown fillies may be bred as 2-year-olds, but most fillies are not bred until they are 3 years old.

Normal breeding season and time of foaling.—Spring is the ideal season for both breeding and foaling. Persons who race or show horses want foals to be born as soon as possible after January 1.

Conditioning for breeding.—Mares are conditioned by proper feeding and adequate exercise.

Signs of heat.—In season, mares generally exhibit (1) relaxation of the external genitals, (2) more frequent urination, (3) teasing of the other mares, (4) apparent desire for company, and (5) slight mucus discharge from the vagina.

The breeding operation.—No phase of horse production has become more unnatural or more complicated with domestication than the actual breeding operation. This is so because breeders try to get mares bred in about 4 months instead of 12 and have arbitrarily limited the breeding season to late winter and early spring. The following facts and pointers are pertinent to the breeding operation:

(1) Hand mating, in which the animals are coupled under supervision, is the most common. It guards against injury to both the stallion and the mare. However, corral or pasture breeding may be preferable under certain conditions. For example, corral breeding may be resorted to when only one person is handling the breeding operation, and pasture breeding is sometimes followed on the ranges of the West. In corral breeding, the stallion and the mare are turned together in a corral; in pasture breeding, the stallion is turned to pasture with a band of mares.

(2) Breed only healthy mares to a healthy stallion. Require that all mares from the outside be accompanied by a health certificate signed by a veterinarian.

(3) Teasing is the best way in which to make certain that a mare is in season.

(4) Serve the mare daily or every other day during the heat period, beginning with the third day.

(5) After making certain that the mare is in season, wash the reproductive organs of the stallion and the external parts of the mare that are likely to come in contact with the reproductive organs of the stallion; bandage the upper 6 to 8 inches of the mare's tail. Place a twitch and hobbles on the mare and allow the sexual act to be completed. Return the mare for retrial approximately 21 days later.

Signs and tests of pregnancy.—The signs of pregnancy are (1) cessation of the heat period and (2) observed movement of the fetus through the abdominal walls. A veterinarian or an experienced horseman can determine pregnancy by making a rectal examination 40 to 60 days after the last service. Also, tests can be made by a laboratory.

Quarters for the pregnant mare.—Pregnant, idle mares should be turned to pasture. Pregnant mares that are used under saddle or in harness may be given quarters like those of other horses used similarly.

Exercise.—Mares that have the run of a large pasture will usually get sufficient exercise. Stabled mares should be exercised moderately for an hour daily under saddle or hitched to a cart. Continue this routine to within a day or two of foaling. During the last couple of days, mares may be led.

Signs of approaching parturition.—These signs are a distended udder, which may be observed 2 to 6 weeks before foaling; a shrinkage or falling away of the buttocks muscles near the tailhead and a falling of the abdomen 7 to 10 days before foaling; filling out of the teats 4 to 6 days before foaling; and the appearance of wax on the ends of the nipples 4 to 6 days before foaling. As foaling time draws nearer, the vulva becomes full and loose; milk drops from the teats; and the mare becomes restless, may break into a sweat, urinates frequently, and lies down and gets up. But there are times when all signs fail, so be prepared 30 days in advance of the expected time.

Foaling place.—When the weather is warm and it can be arranged, allow the mare to foal in a clean pasture away from other livestock. During bad weather, use a box stall which has been cleaned and disinfected with 13 ounces of lye in 10 gallons of water; use one-half strength solution in scrubbing mangers and grain boxes. Sprinkle the floor and walls lightly with quick lime or burnt lime. Provide plenty of bedding for the occasion.

Foaling time.—The following information and procedure may be helpful during foaling:

(1) The feed should be decreased and wheat bran should be added.

(2) An attendant should be near but not in sight.

(3) Normal presentation consists in the front feet coming first with the heels down. If there is any other presentation, a veterinarian should be summoned at once.

(4) Make certain that the newborn foal is breathing and that the membrane has been removed from its mouth and nostrils. Then rub and dry the foal with towels, treat the navel cord with tincture of iodine, and let the mare and foal rest for a time. Remove the expelled afterbirth from the stall and burn or bury it; it is usually expelled within 1 to 6 hours after foaling. Clean and rebed the stall after the mare and foal are up. Give the mare small quantities of lukewarm water at intervals and feed considerable wheat bran for the first few days after foaling; take 7 to 10 days to get the mare on full feed. Be observant; if the mare has much temperature, call a veterinarian. The normal temperature is 100.5° F.

Breeding after foaling.—Some horsemen rebreed mares during the first heat after foaling, usually on the 8th or 9th day, providing the birth was normal and the mare suffered no injury or infection. Other horsemen prefer to rebreed mares during the heat period that follows the foal heat (25 to 30 days from foaling), provided there is no discharge or evidence of infection.

The Foal

After the newborn foal starts breathing and has been rubbed dry, put it in one corner of the stall on clean, fresh straw. The mare usually will be less restless if this corner is in the direction of her head.

Protect the eyes of a newborn foal from bright lights.

Treatment of the navel cord

If left alone, the navel cord of the newborn foal usually breaks within 2 to 4 inches of the belly. If it does not break, cut it about 2 inches from the belly with clean dull shears or scrape it in two with a knife. A torn or broken blood vessel will bleed very little, but one cut directly across may bleed excessively. Treat the severed cord immediately with tincture of iodine, or other reliable antiseptic; then leave the mare and foal alone so they can rest and gain strength.

Value of colostrum

Colostrum is milk secreted by the dam for the first few days after parturition. It differs from ordinary milk in that it is more concentrated; is higher in protein content, especially in globulin; is richer in vitamin A; contains antibodies that protect the foal temporarily against certain infections; and is a natural purgative that removes fecal matter accumulated in the digestive tract.

Do not dissipate the benefits of colostrum by "milking out" a mare shortly before foaling time.

The first nursing

A strong, healthy foal will be on its feet and ready to nurse within ½ to 2 hours after birth. Before allowing the foal to nurse for the first time, wash the mare's udder with a mild disinfectant and rinse thoroughly with clean, warm water.

A big, awkward foal occasionally needs assistance and guidance when it nurses the first time. If the foal is stubborn, forced feeding will be useless. Back the mare onto additional bedding in one corner of the stall and coax the foal to the teats with a bottle and nipple. An attendant may hold the bottle while standing on the opposite side of the mare from the foal.

A very weak foal should be given the mare's first milk even if it is necessary to draw this milk into a bottle and feed the foal one or two times by nipple. An attendant sometimes must steady a foal before it will nurse.

Bowel movement

Regulation of the bowel movement of the foal is very important. Constipation and diarrhea (scours) are common ailments.

Excrement impacted in the bowels during prenatal development—material called meconium—may kill the foal if it is not eliminated promptly. A good feed of colostrum usually will cause natural elimination. This is not always the case, however, especially when foals are from stall-fed mares.

Observe the foal's bowel movement 4 to 12 hours after birth. If there has been no fecal discharge by this time, and the foal seems sluggish and fails to nurse, give it an enema. Use 1 to 2 quarts of water at body heat (101° F.) mixed with a little glycerin, or use 1 to 2 quarts of warm, soapy water. Inject the solution with a baby syringe that has about a 3-inch nipple, or use a tube and can. Repeat the treatment until normal yellow feces appear.

If the foal is scouring, reduce the mare's feed and take away part of her milk from the foal at intervals by milking her out.

Diarrhea or scours in foals may result from infectious diseases or dirty surroundings. It is caused by an irritant in the digestive tract that should be removed. Give an astringent only in exceptional cases and on the advice of a veterinarian.

Conditions that may cause diarrhea are contaminated udder or teats, nonremoval of fecal matter from the digestive tract, fretfulness or temperature above normal in the mare, too much feed affecting the quality of the mare's milk, a cold damp bed, or continued exposure to cold rains.

Care of the suckling foal

Weather conditions permitting, there is no better place for a mare and foal than on pasture. When the foal is from 10 days to 3 weeks old, it will begin to nibble on a little grain and hay. To promote thrift and early development, and to avoid any setback at weaning time, encourage the foal to eat supplementary feed as early as possible. The foal should be provided with a low-built grain box especially for this purpose, or, if on pasture, the foal may be creep fed.

Rolled oats and wheat bran, to which a little brown sugar has been added, is especially palatable as a starting ration. Crushed or ground oats, cracked or ground corn, wheat bran, and a little linseed meal may be provided later with good results. Or a good commercial ration may be fed if desired and available.

Give the foal good hay, preferably a legume, or pasture in addition to its grain ration. A normal healthy foal should be eating one-half pound of grain daily per 100 pounds of body weight at 4 to 5 weeks of age. This ration should be increased by weaning time to about three-fourths of a pound or more per 100 pounds of body weight. The exact amount of the ration varies with the individual, the type of feed, and the development desired.

Foals normally reach one-half of their mature weight during the first year under such a system. Most breeders of Thoroughbreds and Standardbreds plan to have their 2-year-old animals at full height. Such results require liberal feeding from the beginning. A foal stunted in the first year by insufficient feeding cannot be developed properly later in life. It is well recognized that forced development must be done expertly if the animals are to remain durable and sound.

Training the foal

If the foal is trained early, it will be a better disciplined, more serviceable horse. Give lessons to the foal one at a time and in proper sequence; that is, be sure the pupil masters one lesson before it is given the next one.

Put a well-fitted halter on the foal when it is 10 to 14 days old. When the foal has become accustomed to the halter, in a day or so, tie the foal securely in the stall beside the mare. Try to keep the foal from freeing itself from the rope or from becoming tangled up in it.

Leave the foal tied 30 to 60 minutes each day for 2 or 3 days. Groom the animal carefully while it is tied. Rub each leg and handle each foot so that the foal becomes accustomed to having its feet picked up. After the foal has been groomed, lead it around with the mare for a few days and then lead it by itself. Lead it at both the walk and the trot. Many breeders of Thoroughbreds teach a foal to lead simply by leading it with the mare from the stall to the paddock and back again.

At this stage of the training, be sure the foal executes your commands to stop and go as soon as you give them. When halted, make the foal stand in show position—squarely on all four legs with its head up.

Use all your patience, gentleness, and firmness in training the foal. Never let your temper get the best of you.

Weaning

Foals usually are weaned at 4 to 6 months of age. Thorough preparation facilitates weaning.

It may be advisable to wean the foal at a comparatively early age if either the foal or mare is not doing well, if the mare is being given heavy work, or if the mare was rebred on the ninth day after foaling.

If by using a creep or a separate grain box the foal has become accustomed to eating a considerable amount of hay and about three-fourths of a pound of grain daily per 100 pounds of body weight, weaning will cause only a slight disturbance or setback. If the ration of the dam is cut in half a few days before the separation, her udder usually will dry up without difficulty.

Move the mare to new quarters from the stall she shares with the foal. Remove anything in the stall on which the foal might hurt itself during the first unhappy days that it lives alone. Make the separation of the foal from the mare complete and final. If the foal sees, hears, or smells its dam again, the separation process must be started all over again.

Decrease the mare's ration before and during weaning. Rub camphorated oil or a mixture of lard and spirits of camphor on the udder, but do not milk out the udder until 5 to 7 days later when it is soft and flabby.

Turn the foal out on pasture after a day or two. If there are several weanlings together, some of them might get hurt while running and frolicking in the pasture. Guard against this by first turning out two or three less valuable individuals and letting them tire themselves; then turn out the rest.

At this stage, if numerous weanlings are involved, separate them by sexes. Put the more timid ones by themselves. Do not run weanlings with older horses.

Castration

Geldings, or castrated males, are safer and easier to handle than stallions. Therefore, a colt should be castrated unless he is to be saved for breeding purposes. Have a veterinarian perform this operation. A colt may be castrated when only a few days old, but most horsemen prefer to delay the operation until the animal is about a year old. While there is less real danger to the animal and much less setback with early altering, it results in imperfect development of the foreparts. Delaying castration for a time results in more muscular, bolder features and better carriage of the foreparts.

Weather and management conditions permitting, the time of altering should be determined by the development of the individual. Underdeveloped colts may be left uncastrated 6 months or even a year longer than overdeveloped ones.

Breeders of Thoroughbred horses usually prefer to race them first as uncastrated animals.

There is less danger of infection if colts are castrated in the spring soon after they are turned out on clean pasture and before hot weather and "fly time" arrive. This is extremely important in the Southern States because of the danger of screwworm infestation.

Breaking

A foal will not need breaking if it has been trained properly. When a young horse can be saddled or harnessed with satisfactory ease, it is because the suggested training program has been followed. Saddling and harnessing are just additional steps. A good time to harness and work the horse for the first time is during the winter as a rising 2-year-old.

Raising the orphan foal

Occasionally, a mare dies during or immediately after parturition, leaving an orphan foal to be raised. At other times, a mare may fail to give sufficient milk, or she may have twins. In such cases, the foal may be (1) shifted to another mare, known as a foster mother or nurse mare, or (2) placed on mare's milk replacer, or synthetic milk, that is mixed and fed according to the manufacturer's directions.

It is important, however, that the orphan foal receive colostrum, preferably for about the first 4 days of life. For this purpose, colostrum from a mare that produces excess milk or one that has lost her foal should be collected and frozen from time to time; then, as needed, itmay be thawed and warmed to 100° to 105° F. and fed.

For the first few days, the orphan foal should be fed with a bottle and rubber nipple. Within about 2 weeks, it may be taught to drink from a pail. All receptacles must be kept sanitary (clean and scald each time they are used) and feeding must be at regular intervals. Dry feeding should be started at the earliest possible time with the orphan foal.

The following formula may be used for feeding the orphan foal if a substitute milk must be used:

1 pint of low fat cow's milk (2% fat). 4 ounces of lime water. 1 teaspoon of sugar.

Two teaspoons of lactose or corn sirup may be used to replace the sugar and one large can of evaporated cow's milk can be used with one can of water to replace the fresh milk. The foal should be fed about one-half pint every hour. Give large foals slightly more than a pint. After 4 or 5 days increase the interval to 2 hours. After a week, feed every 4 hours and increase the quantity accordingly.

M. E. Ensminger

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